Michelangelo's Redesign of the Capitoline Hill

I. Introduction

The Capitoline Hill has represented the Roman government through the renovation plans of Michelangelo, where it then received its new name of Piazza del Campidoglio. Commissioned by Pope Paul III in 1536 and located in the heart of the city, the Capitoline Hill is the smallest of the Seven Hills of Rome that were established by Romulus, the founder of Rome, when he built the first sanctuary for new Roman citizens (Khormaee). The story holds that twins Romulus and Remus were abandoned at birth and then raised by a she-wolf. Wishing to build a city in two separate areas, the brothers argued until Romulus emerged victorious and Rome was built on the hills surrounding the Capitoline.

The Capitoline Hill is situated between two other significant monuments. Located on the southern summit (the Capitolium) was the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus which was built in the 6th Century. Due to the fact that ‘the best and the greatest of all Jupiter’s’ was regarded as the city’s protector, many triumphant marches ended on the Capitoline Hill, with victorious generals thanking the gods through sacrifices on this site (Macadam 35,46). On the northern summit was the Arx, which was later renovated and remodeled into a monument for Vittorio Emanuele II in the 16th Century, which still stands today.

The Romans built the Tabularium in 78 BC on the Capitoline Hill, a structure that held the archives of ancient Rome. This building, holding the laws of Rome, marked the beginning of Roman government offices being located on the Capitoline. The Tabularium’s peperino marble eventually laid the foundation for the Palazzo Senatorio, built in the middle ages and is still standing today (Brouse 36). In 1143, the Palazzo Senatorio became the site of municipal government and Senate meetings (Khormaee). With the center of government located on Capitoline Hill, the Palazzo dei Conservatori was built in 1447-1455 on the same site as the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus as a seat for magistrates (Khormaee). Today you can still see a wall of tufa blocks along the second floor corridor from the temple of Jupiter (Brouse 39). To affirm the importance of the Capitoline Hill and the dignity of Rome, Pope Sixtus IV started importing ancient sculptures to the site in 1471 (Aikin 585). At this point, the Capitoline Hill had solidified its role as a political center.

In 1536, when Michelangelo Buonarroti was ruin commissioned by Pope Paul III to renovate the Capitoline Hill, it was in a complete state of disaster. The Romans had let the heart of the city fall into virtual ruin, whilst the Senate continued to practice business amongst animals (Burroughs 91 and Duncan 70). Michelangelo planned to convert the Capitoline Hill into a monumental path of ascent that would be framed by grand palaces (Burroughs 88). It took the city of Rome until 1655 to finish the buildings of the Campidoglio (with the help of architects Giacomo della Porta and Girolamo Rainaldi), and until 1940 to ultimately finish Michelangelo’s complete design with the radiating floor pattern around the Marcus Aurelius statue (Tennesfoss and Brouse 39). We see the Piazza del Campidoglio today, still acting as the heart of Rome, housing the Capitoline Museums located in Palazzo Nuovo and Palazzo dei Conservatori, as well as the municipal government of Rome in the Palazzo Senatorio.

II. Description

To enter the Piazza del Campidoglio, one must ascend the flight of stairs called the Cordonata. Michelangelo designed these stairs with a gentle incline that would give a foothold to animals when they climbed the stairs for triumphant marches (Duncan 70). These stairs were designed by Michelangelo, but were not added until 1578 by Giacomo della Porta (Macadam 36). They are lined by two basalt Egyptian Lions, dating back to the Ptolemaic period, that from their mouths blow water coming from the Acqua Felice, an aqueduct constructed to bring water to the hill in the 16th Century (Blue 36). It is difficult not to notice the two large statues of Castor and Pollux (the Dioscures twins) as one continues up the Cordonata. James Ackerman states that these statues, the mythical twins of Zeus and Leda, “were not brought to the heart of the Renaissance city not merely as art, but as a symbol: symbols of heavenly protection and of liberty, in which roles they had been the guardians of Rome since ancient times (Ackerman 69).” These statues, placed at the entrance of the Campidoglio in 1583, were discovered in the Teatro di Pompei during the reign of Pius IV. Since the Campidoglio houses the palaces of government, it is not surprising that Castor and Pollux were placed at the entrance of this important Piazza.

On the sides of the Dioscures twins are two coats of arms that represent the spoils of war that were brought to the Capitoline during triumphs as reminders of Rome’s continuous power (Khormaee). Adding to the grand opening of the Piazza are the statues of Emperor Constantine and his son, Constantius, signifying the first Christian Emperor (Brouse 39).

Within the tranquil Piazza lie three palaces, Palazzo Senatorio, Palazzo del Conservatori and Palazzo Nuovo, as well as the Marcus Aurelius statue. The Statue of Marcus Aurelius is placed in the center of Piazza with his hand raised, gesturing for compassion from the viewer (Brouse 40). This statue is known to be the only bronze statue left from antiquity due to the fact that it was originally thought to be a statue of Constantine. This is important because Pagan Roman statues were destroyed on the orders from the Christian Churches. When it was brought to the Campidoglio in 1538, Pope Paul III wanted it to symbolize the first Christian Emperor, Roman law, and the liberty of Roman citizens as upheld by the Pope (Ackerman 73). Michelangelo’s first project in the Campidoglio, the raised base with the Papal seal of Pope Paul III, gives Marcus Aurelius a commanding stance that is harmonious with the powerful appearance of the statue (Liberman 17). Michelangelo resented Pope Paul’s want for religious symbols in the Campidoglio, subsequently choosing to only carve the Papal seal into the front of the base and S.P.Q.R into the back. In 1981, the original statue underwent extensive restoration and was placed inside Palazzo Nuovo, leaving a copy of the statue in the center of Campidoglio in its place (Brouse 39).

Encompassing the statue is an oval pattern that is imprinted into the surrounding ground. It is thought that the “ vivid compass star radiates from the sculpture in all directions, as if to project the great thoughts of a noble mind into the universe beyond their assigned earthly limits (Liberman 17).” This floor pattern was not completed until the reign of Mussolini, when he had it paved to match Michelangelo’s design. Looking down onto the Campidoglio from a birds-eye view shows this effect of a radiating compass across the world.

Looking past the statue of Marcus Aurelius, straight ahead is the Palazzo Senatorio, which is still, to this day, the seat of the Mayor of Rome. In the Middle Ages, the Corsi family used the remains of the Tabularium to build a fortress for the senate of Comune of Rome (Macadam54). Not until 1592 when Giacomo della Porta tailored the designs of Michelangelo was the present façade added to Palazzo Senatorio. Giacomo followed Michelangelo’s design for the two river gods, the Nile and Tiber statues, which were found on the Quirinal Hill, to flank the double stair case (the Nile is on the left and the Tiber is on the right) (Macadam 54). Originally the Tiber statue was a representation of the River Tigris, but was changed to the Tiber in the 16th Century when the she-wolf was added to the corner of the statue (Macadam 54). Shortly after the Acqua Felice was installed, two Greek fountain basins were added and the statue of Jove was replaced by Minerva, the then recognized goddess of Rome, fitting into the central niche to complete the double stair case.

The two palaces, Palazzo dei Conservatori and Palazzo Nuovo (also called the Capitoline Museums), form a unique 80 degree angle with Palazzo Senatorio (Khormaee). With this unusual trapezoid shape and symmetry, there is a definite central axis that leads straight into the Palazzo Senatorio (Khormaee). Famous for their collection of Roman Sculptures are the two strategically placed palaces that have an identical exterior façade. Built off of the remains of the Jupiter Optimus Maximus temple, Palazzo dei Conservatori’s remodeling didn’t start until around 1560, after Michelangelo’s death (Burroughs 91). Michelangelo used a “strictly architectural mode of expression” on this façade, using an unusual design of ionic columns supporting the molding of an opening to a gallery on the second floor (Macadam 39, Burroughs 92). Not following normal architectural customs, Michelangelo showed the earliest form of giant order in secular architecture when he used columns to unite two levels (Macadam 39). Now in the courtyard of this magnificent building are the remains of the seated statue of Constantine the Great.

One can walk through an underground tunnel that connects the Palazzo dei Conservatori and the Palazzo Nuovo that shows parts of the ancient Tabularium. Palazzo Nuovo was not built until 1644-1655, and was built from scratch with an identical façade to the Palazzo dei Conservatori as Michelangelo intended. Michelangelo planned the entire piazza to hold traditional symmetry that some say came from his fondness of the architect Marcus Vitruvius (Art History Paper). Following the Vitruvian style of symmetry, Michelangelo designed the Palazzo Nuovo not for functional purposes but for the sheer principle of constructing the Piazza Campidoglio symmetrically (Khormaee).

III. Function

The contrasting role of the Pope and the Emperor shows major symbolism in the Piazza del Campidoglio (Ackerman 73). The grand Cordonata leads a viewer’s eyes straight to the Palazzo Senatorio, but not before they pause on the statue of Marcus Aurelius (Khormaee). The Palazzo Senatorio, signifying the Roman government, and the Marcus Aurelius statue, thought to be Constantine the first Christian Emperor as a religious symbol. Pope Paul III intended to have this piazza function as a constant reminder of Rome as caput mundi, or the center of the world, as well as a religious sector that worked in conjunction with the Roman government (Ackerman 74,Aikin 585).

To fulfill the first function of Rome as the center of the world, the statue of Minerva, the goddess of Roma, is placed strategically in the center of the double staircase, holding a globe in her left hand signifying the power Rome has by holding the world in the palm of her hand (Macadam 54, Khormaee). The power of ancient Rome can also be shown in the statues lining the balustrades that were collected by Pope Sixtus IV and brought to the Campidoglio (Khormaee). Michelangelo’s radial pavement pattern also represents the Campidoglio as the center of the world. If you look down upon the pattern you see “the shape of the earth exposed, and thus, Rome’s role as the center of the global world (Khormaee).”

By the time Pope Paul III commissioned the redesign of the Capitoline Hill, it was widely know as a place holding historical and political associations, and he didn’t want to neglect this monumental symbol; in fact he was wanted to capitalize on it (Ackerman 73). As Pope Paul III pushed for Christian symbols in the Campidoglio, Michelangelo resisted but ultimately followed his orders. To emphasize the church in government, the entrance to Palazzo Senatorio was changed to face the direction of St. Peter’s Basilica (Khormaee). Before this time, senators entered the Palazzo through the Roman Forum. Now without choice, when exiting or entering the Palazzo, St. Peters is directly in plain sight on the horizon. From changing the direction of the entrance, a viewer can also see the contrast between religion and politics at the time. As the Cordonata gently rises into the Campidoglio, it symbolizes the easy ascent into politics, in contrast with the long, strenuous efforts required by the church and St. Peter’s Basilica.

Another way in which Pope Paul III emphasized the function of religion in the Piazza is through commissioning his papal seal on the base of the Marcus Aurelius statue (Khormaee). As he thought the statue to be of Emperor Constantine, Pope Paul III stressed that the Roman Empire was a facilitator of Christianity (Aikin 585). The role of propaganda plays into the functions that Pope Paul III intended. He wanted the Piazza del Campidoglio to be a monumental space for Rome and Christianity to blend (Aikin 585). Roger Cushing Aikin believes that he wanted to continue the theme of Capitoline art being the divine mission of Rome, proving the grandeur of future Christian Triumphs (585).

IV. Patronage

Pope Paul III had only been Pope for a short time when he commissioned the redesign of Capitoline Hill. He was looking for an artist to bring it out of the negligence of the people and into the limelight (Duncan70). Michelangelo was still working on the “Last Judgment” scene in the Sistine Chapel at the time, commissioned by the same pope, and had just been made a Roman citizen. His work was now well known, and as the Campidoglio was the historical center of the city, Paul III decided it was time elevate the appearance of such a monumental site.

Historically speaking, Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, had just won his war over the non-Christians in North Africa. Due to his victory, a traditional grand triumphal procession was planned by Pope Paul III that would include visits to the Arch of Constantine, the Colosseum and ending at the Campidoglio. Commissioned in 1536, the only piece that Michelangelo was able to finish before Charles V arrived in 1538 was the base of the Marcus Aurelius statue in the middle of Campidoglio. Michelangelo made design plans for the whole Piazza though, that were finally finished by Mussolini almost four centuries later.

There is also speculation that another reason for Pope Paul’s commission was for his own benefit (Tennefoss). He bought a villa where the present day Vittorio Emanuele II monument lies and wanted to improve the view from his gardens (Tennesfoss). Nonetheless, Michelangelo’s reconstruction of the Capitoline Hill would enhance all of the surrounding area of Rome, as the Campidoglio is at the heart of the Eternal City.

V. Conclusion and Personal Opinion

Today the Piazza del Campidoglio is a huge tourist attraction. All the guide books write of its magnificent architectural structure and beauty. I walked up the stairs to find a perfectly constructed grand piazza that is hidden from the streets below and was blown away. This magnificent piazza, lit perfectly at night, captures and demands attention. Viewers though should not overlook the dominating history that lies in each building, as well as the political and religious roles that were intended to last a lifetime. I find it incredible that a building dating back to 78 BC, the Tabularium (now the Palazzo Senatorio), is still functioning, as its original intended purpose was as the central location for government activities.

Today the Palazzo dei Conservatori and Palazzo Nuovo constitute the Capitoline Museums. These museums are famous for their ancient sculptures that fill the palace rooms, and are considered to be the oldest public collection in the world. The Palazzo dei Conservatori contains fragments of the seated statue of Constantine the Great, reliefs from a triumphal arch, Roman bronzes, Pinacoteca Capitolina (gallery of paintings), and the famous she-wolf sculpture of Rome. Originally the she-wolf sculpture was placed in the center of the Capitoline Hill, but was later moved to the Lateran Palace and then back to the Conservatori where the twins Romulus and Remus were added to the bottom in 1509. This sculpture has become the ultimate symbol of Rome. I think the fact that this symbol of Rome stands in the Campidoglio really shows the importance and respect the Romans have for this piazza. Palazzo Nuovo completes the Capitoline Museums with its ancient Roman sculpture collection dating back to Clement XII.

The Campidoglio is a one-of-a-kind trapezoidal piazza that was crafted by Michelangelo to emphasize symmetry. Vincent Scully states, “[Michelangelo] affirms that architecture is a space, an environment. The buildings are pushed back to shape that space, to bring it into being. But sculpture is in the center. It is active… It says human act creates the environment, shapes the human world.” Piazza del Campidoglio today reiterates the original role as a monumental site for propaganda of political and religious origin (Aikin 585). Holding beauty as well as political background and struggling with the roles of religion, this piazza will forever stay as the center of the Rome.

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